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Mao began his final push for consolidation of CPC power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CPC doctrine that came to be formalized as " Mao Zedong Thought ". The communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants ; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CPC and fighting the Japanese at the same time.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha , which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world's " Four Policemen ", elevating the international status of China to an unprecedented height after the century of humiliation at the hands of various imperialist powers.
Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the Yunnan—Vietnam Railway had been closed since Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in , foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over " The Hump ".
In Burma, on 16 April , 7, British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. The operation started 15 May , with 40 infantry battalions and 15—16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September. Chinese estimates allege that as many as , civilians, the vast majority of whom were destitute Tanka boat people and other pariah ethnicities unable to flee, may have died of disease. Most of China's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in with Chiang's approval.
For other uses, see Butterfly Lovers disambiguation. After , the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve its occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favorable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, most prominently the Nanjing Nationalist Government headed by former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. Yet even now, top Chinese generals seemed unable to work with each other at Xinyang, Li Zongren's Guangxi troops were battered to exhaustion. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces. Studies on the Population of China, — Archived from the original PDF on 25 June
For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Chiang was named Allied commander-in-chief in the China theater in American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China-Burma-India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Many historians such as Barbara W. Tuchman have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang KMT government, while others such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven have depicted it as a more complicated situation.
Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of out-waiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America's overwhelming industrial output.
For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area , employing an island hopping strategy. Long-standing differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the Burma Road ; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China's mainland ports were under Japanese control.
The Allies' " Europe First " policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial possessions.
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Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a meeting with Mahatma Gandhi , which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom. American and Canadian-born Chinese were recruited to act as covert operatives in Japanese-occupied China Canadian-born Chinese who had not been granted citizenship were trained by the British army.
Employing their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies signaling bomber destruction of railroads, bridges. The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands.
This brought major cities in Hunan, Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation. The failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the Chinese army, and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady Wedemeyer. In , China came off of several victories against Japan in Burma leading to overconfidence. Nationalist China also diverted soldiers to Xinjiang since to retake the province from the Soviet client Sheng Shicai whose puppet army was backed by the Soviet Red Army 8th Regiment in Hami, Xinjiang since the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang in when the Soviets occupied northern Xinjiang and the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang in when the Soviets occupied southern Xinjiang as well placing all of Xinjiang under Sheng Shicai and Soviet Communist control.
The fighting then escalated in early with the Ili Rebellion with Soviet backed Uyghur Communist rebels, causing China to fight enemies on two fronts with , Chinese soldiers fighting against the Ili rebellion. The aim of the Japanese Operation Ichigo was to destroy American airfields in southern China that threatened the Japanese home islands with bombing and to link railways in Beijing, Hankou and Canton cities from northern China in Beijing to southern China's coast on Canton.
Japan was alarmed by American air raids against Japanese forces in Taiwan's Hsinchu airfield by American bombers based in southern China, correctly deducing that southern China could become the base of a major American bombing campaign against the Japanese home islands so Japan resolved to destroy and capture all airbases where American bombers operated from in Operation Ichigo. Chiang Kai-shek and the Republic of China authorities deliberately ignored and dismissed a tip passed on to the Chinese government in Chongqing by the French military that the French picked up in colonial French Indochina on the impending Japanese offensive to link the three cities.
The Chinese military believed it to be a fake tip planted by Japan to mislead them since only 30, Japanese soldiers started the first maneuver of Operation Ichigo in northern China crossing the Yellow river so the Chinese assumed it would be a local operation in northern China only.
Another major factor was that the battlefront between China and Japan was static and stabilized since and continued for four years that way until Operation Ichigo in so Chiang assumed that Japan would continue the same posture and remain behind the lines in pre occupied territories of North China only bolstering the puppet Chinese government of Wang Jingwei and exploiting resources there.
The Japanese had indeed acted this way from to , with the Japanese only making a few failed weak attempts to capture China's provisional capital in Chongqing on the Yangtze river which they quickly abandoned and gave up on before Japan also exhibited no intention before of linking the transcontinental Beijing Hankow Canton railways. China also was made confident by its three victories in a row defending Changsha against Japan at the Battle of Changsha , Battle of Changsha , and Battle of Changsha China had also defeated Japan in the India- Burma theater in Southeast Asia with X Force and Y Force and the Chinese could not believe Japan had carelessly let information slip into French hands, believing Japan deliberately fed misinformation to the French to divert Chinese troops from India and Burma towards China.
China believed the Burma theater to be far more important for Japan than southern China and that Japanese forces in southern China would continue to assume a defensive posture only.
China believed the initial Japanese attack in Ichigo to be a localized feint and distraction in northern China so Chinese troops numbering , in North China deliberately withdrew without a fight when Japan attacked, assuming it was just another localized operation after which the Japanese would withdraw. This mistake led to the collapse of Chinese defensive lines as the Japanese soldiers which eventually numbered in the hundreds of thousands kept pressing the attack from northern China to central China to southern China's provinces as Chinese soldiers deliberately withdrew leading to confusion and collapse, except at the Defense of Hengyang where 17, outnumbered Chinese soldiers held out against over , Japanese soldiers for months in the longest siege of the war inflicting 19,—60, deaths on the Japanese.
At Tushan in Guizhou province, the Nationalist government of China was forced to deploy five armies of the 8th war zone that they were using for the entire war up to Ichigo to contain the Communist Chinese to instead fight Japan. But at that point, dietary deficiencies of Japanese soldiers and increasing casualties suffered by Japan forced Japan to end Operation Ichigo in Guizhou causing the operation to cease. By the end of Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li-jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan , joined forces in Mong-Yu , successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road , China's vital supply artery.
With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.
By the United States had become China's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter.
Over 3, overseas Chinese drivers and motor vehicle mechanics embarked to wartime China to support military and logistics supply lines, especially through Indo-China, which became of absolute tantamount importance when the Japanese cut-off all ocean-access to China's interior with the capture of Nanning after the Battle of South Guangxi.
Prior to the war, Germany and China were in close economic and military cooperation, with Germany helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. Germany sent military advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen to China to help the KMT government reform its armed forces. By the mids about 80, soldiers had received German-style training. After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist Anti-Comintern Pact , the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting, in order to deter a Japanese invasion of Siberia and save itself from a two-front war.
In September , they signed the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet , the formation of a secret Soviet volunteer air force , in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China's transportation systems. Bombers , fighters , supplies and advisors arrived, including Soviet general Vasily Chuikov , future victor in the Battle of Stalingrad. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time. The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party. In total, 3, Soviet advisors and pilots served in China, [] and of them died fighting there.
The United States generally avoided taking sides between Japan and China until , providing virtually no aid to China in this period. For instance, the Silver Purchase Act signed by President Roosevelt caused chaos in China's economy which helped the Japanese war effort. The Wheat and Cotton Loan mainly benefited American producers, while aiding to a smaller extent both Chinese and Japanese alike. This policy was due to US fear of breaking off profitable trade ties with Japan, in addition to US officials and businesses perception of China as a potential source of massive profit for the US by absorbing surplus American products, as William Appleman Williams states.
From December , events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay and the Nanjing Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to China. Australia also prevented a Japanese government-owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in At the same time, the US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, [] machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials steel and scrap iron up to 16 October , petrol and petroleum products up to 26 June , [] and various other much-needed supplies.
Stewart, a former Foreign Policy Association research staff and economist who charged that America's Neutrality Act and its "neutrality policy" was a massive farce which only benefited Japan and that Japan did not have the capability nor could ever have invaded China without the massive amount of raw material America exported to Japan. America exported far more raw material to Japan than to China in the years — Japan's military machine acquired all the war materials, automotive equipment, steel, scrap iron, copper, oil, that it wanted from the United States in — and was allowed to purchase aerial bombs, aircraft equipment, and aircraft from America up to the summer of Japan's war economy was fueled by exports to the United States at over twice the rate immediately preceding the war.
During the Japanese war against China, Japan freely bought weapons from U. Government barred the sale of weapons to Republican Spain. From to , Japanese bombers were fueled with American oil and Japanese weapons were made out of American scrap iron. America supplied Japan with Japan by itself had scant and meager resources and could not have prosecuted war against China or dreamed of empire without massive imports.
Oil, scrap iron and rubber were all sold by France, the Netherlands, Britain and the U. Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina present-day Vietnam , Laos , Cambodia in September to prevent China from receiving the 10, tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong—Yunnan Fou Railway line. On 22 June , Germany attacked the Soviet Union. In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler 's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects. On 21 July, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina southern Vietnam and Cambodia , contravening a " gentlemen's agreement " not to move into southern French Indochina.
As the Japanese occupation of northern French Indochina in had already cut off supplies from the West to China, the move into southern French Indochina was viewed as a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the Japanese government and military particularly the navy were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite retaliation from the West.
On 24 July , Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the US and the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on a long-term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December Contrary to popular perception, the Flying Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan.