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The Extermination of Ottoman Armenians by the Young Turk Regime (1915-1916)

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It is assumed that the great majority of them were deaf or had significantly impaired hearing. Some have further assumed that 'of course' the male Dilsiz must also have been castrated, as part of a package of atrocities and obscenities that the 'mad Eastern despots' were well known in the fertile Western imagination to have inflicted on their subjects. Certainly, some cutting or slitting of tongues or other fleshy parts of the body is recorded in Middle Eastern history, as punishment for specific crimes, or in early 'shock and awe' policies to terrify populations into submission Adamson or possibly in some religious rituals.

See also Nikephoros, transl.

THE EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT

Yet no primary evidence has been produced to show that any ruler's servants in the Ottoman era became mute as a result of such 'mutilation'. There is evidence that a few of the Ottoman sultans suffered serious mental illness during their reigns; but they and their advisors were not so crazy as to have a man's tongue torn out or slit down the middle and then to take that same man as a personal servant or armed guard.

When rulers chose to have deaf and mute servants around them, the main reasons seems to have been to reduce the chances of being overheard when discussing vital and secret business with their most senior officials. The dumb broke into speech, called me out and Repeated with me every single word. Terms for the blind, deaf, and mute are easily identified, as are some terms for whisper, hear, call, speech.

A term for 'giving hand signals' is not so obvious, and the order of words in Turkish is notoriously different from what might be expected in English. The English translation may involve some paraphrasis, to convey the supposed meaning. Allowing for the poet's ironic reversal of normal expectation -- i.

That writer clearly had access to some historical sources for the story she told, yet probably inserted the mutes by her own imagination, without a basis in any primary source , in her account of Sultan Murad's death in The account is probably mistaken. It is shown here, as an example of some of the problems and confusions with which historians have to deal in handling medieval materials; and also because the dubious source can be viewed, full text online, and therefore is liable to be picked up and repeated by incautious writers, as though it were 'proof', which it is not.

Here, in volume 1, pp. Bajazet promptly sent a message to his brother, as if from their father, to come immediately to the Sultan's tent. However, the difference is already found in early Byzantine records, in which one source calls the brother Sabucius; another calls him Soliman, and a third Jacob or Yakub.

For some, he was the elder brother, for others, the younger. Some state that he was strangled, but one says that his eyes were gouged out. The mutes may have been a factor that Gomez projected back into the story, from later history e. Leunclavius further suggested that Turkish historians exonerated Bajazet from responsibility, and believed that the decision was taken by a secret council of leaders on the battlefield. Lamartine , pp.

Gomez's margin date for her 'anecdote', given as running on from earlier pages , is similar to the Byzantine dating, but modern historians e. Alderson , p. Most accounts have Yakub nearby, on one wing of the army, rather than arriving a few days later. Thus for several reasons, the story by Madame de Gomez is of doubtful historical accuracy , though she incorporated a number of possibly valid points from early sources, and the climactic event is very likely correct, i.

Bayezid's brother arrived and was promptly killed. More recently, Gibbons , p. Yakub was taken to Bayezid's tent, and was strangled with a bowstring. But none of those writers actually specified a bowstring, in Migne's edition. Indeed, Dukas had the prince - whom he calls Sabucium - arriving and being blinded, not strangled. There are occasional hints of their presence as far back as Bayezid I Yet early sources have not been quoted in the encyclopedias to substantiate those claims. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Paris: Leroux.

According to C. This knowledge, i. They saw Murad briefly at a small town, but he declined to transact any business as he was on a recreational trip and his senior officers were absent pp. The two visitors returned to Edirne and awaited Murad's arrival. The Sultan appeared from his residential quarters accompanied by his group of male pages as far as the entrance to the 'business' court.

After the ambassador's gifts had been shown to the seated Sultan, the latter got up, stepped toward the ambassador and took his hand, while the ambassador tried to kiss the Sultan's hand.

Respondy que tresbien. Did he see two men tumbling around like buffoons, or making ridiculous faces? Did he actually see no odd behaviour, but merely learnt from a courtier that those men were buffoons?

Or might he have seen two men silently raising their arms, making signals with their fingers, nodding their heads and signalling with their eyebrows? The later 'dwarfs and mutes' of the Ottoman sultans acted as buffoons and played the fool, as well as communicating by sign language.

Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd edition , VII: Leiden: Brill. See below, 'between and ', Babinger, for an anecdote about this man's deafness. Original ' Mehmed der Eroberer und seine Zeit ', ; second edition , with revisions. He intended to publish a complementary volume of notes and references for this book on Mehmed the Conqueror, but died before being able to do so. The story related below involved a deaf person, and was reported in discussion of a member of the el-Fenari family, the somewhat eccentric scholar, Hasan Chelebi.

Also present was the well-known author and sheikh Ali al-Bistami, who proudly traced his descent back to the caliph Umar and had written numerous books. In the course of the conversation Hasan Chelebi criticized one of these books, declaring that he could refute any number of passages in it. Had he never met the sheikh?

Table of contents

Mahmud Pasha asked him. He replied in the negative, whereupon the grand vizier pointed al-Bistami out to him. Mullah Hasan Chelebi was highly embarrassed, but the master of the house comforted him by telling him the sheikh was deaf and had not heard a word of the conversation.

Muhammad al-Bistami see entry above, under s, by De Bruijn who lost his hearing in middle age. Stathas translated and edited by D. Nicol Then in a list of 25 men possessing particular skills and talents, there are two engravers a master and an apprentice , two bookbinders, three clerks or secretaries, a storyteller, three classical singers, two players of stringed instruments, an astrologer, two winemakers or suppliers , three swordmakers, an arrowmaker, and three surgeons pp. The articles on 'Dilsiz' by O. Nicol , pp. Yet those remarks could be seen as a partial affirmation.

Executive Summary

Mehmed very likely had no large, permanent troupe of entertainers on the payroll; but a modest number of men with various skills and talents were on hand, as listed above, having their food and a sleeping space in the servants quarters. They might be called in to perform as and when required, and to earn a special reward if the monarch happened to be pleased and did not change his mind. By the time Spandounes was writing his final version in the s, the court establishment was very considerably greater, and hundreds of men and boys were serving, and more were in training for service.

They were located not only at Istanbul but, for example, " other such pages are kept in other centres such as Pera or Adrianople, with their own eunuchs and teachers" p. Even if one or two might have been nicknamed 'Dilsiz' for some other reason, it would be difficult to argue this for all four.

ANITA LIGHT

Further, it is hard to imagine how these mutes could have performed their duties unless there was some regular means of communication between them and the highest officials. In later centuries, successive Sultans are recorded as using sign language with their mutes, especially the two or three senior mutes who were among their favourites and intimates. It seems likely that the process of developing signed communication was beginning, or had already begun, in the s, when Fatih Sultan Mehmed II was withdrawing from a 'public' life, and cultivating privacy and seclusion.

One of Mustafa's flaws was his addiction to intimate relations with women, including those already forming part of the harem of other men. Such habits could lead only to hatred and strife. Mustafa died suddenly in One version of his death, offered in this Turkish web page, was that he had been killed in the hamam of Nigde, by a mute, at the instigation of the Grand Vizier, Mahmud Pasha.

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It was rumoured that Prince Mustafa attempted or actually had illicit relations with Mahmud's wife. That version of Mustafa's death is quite likely to be mistaken see next entry under Yet the incidental details of such rumours tended to reflect the well-known life of the times, otherwise nobody would believe them at all.

For example, if it had been well known that no deaf mute person worked in bath houses at this time, or that such people had never been involved in murderous activities, such a rumour could hardly have been recorded in writing. So the presence of a mute servant, ready to carry out the Vizier's extreme wishes, may be a credible detail, even if, in this case, no such murder necessarily happened. Stavrides offers a lengthy and cautious analysis of the "melange of rumors and speculations" surrounding the dismissal and execution of Mahmud Pasha pp. The possibility of confusion or conflation of rumours about the execution of Mahmud Pasha and the execution of Gedik Ahmed Pasha whose wife was reported, by some sources, to have been raped by Prince Mustafa in a bath-house is also considered pp.

The execution was therefore most likely to have been carried out by the official executioner and his assistants, and probably not by any deaf persons.

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