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Wu came out to her mother during a conversation with her in Mandarin Chinese about the class. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. American film director and screenwriter. San Jose, California , U. Retrieved March 23, New York Magazine. Retrieved October 29, The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 26, Retrieved July 6, The Talon. Retrieved May 17, The Business Podcast. Archived from the original on November 21, Retrieved August 31, Retrieved April 18, Journal of Lesbian Studies.

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Archived from the original on February 19, Retrieved October 30, Retrieved June 30, Retrieved March 5, Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Southern Min. There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwest Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka.

All varieties of Chinese are tonal to at least some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest Chinese written records are Shang dynasty -era oracle bone inscriptions , which can be dated to BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions.

Standard Chinese , based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, was adopted in the s and is now an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan, one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The written form, using the logograms known as Chinese characters , is shared by literate speakers of unintelligible dialects. Since the s, simplified Chinese characters have been promoted for use by the government of the People's Republic of China, while traditional characters remain in use in Taiwan and elsewhere.

Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones.

The first written records appeared over 3, years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around BCE in the late Shang dynasty. It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the Qieyun rime book CE , and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system.

Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. The relationship between spoken and written Chinese is rather complex " diglossia ". Its spoken varieties have evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. Classical Chinese literature began in the Spring and Autumn period.

After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jin Jurchen and Yuan Mongol dynasties in northern China, a common speech now called Old Mandarin developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means.

Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han empire in BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies were established in northern Korea in the first century BCE, but disintegrated in the following centuries. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations.

Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages.

Chinese language

They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters Kanji and kana. Korean is written exclusively with Hangul in North Korea, and supplementary Chinese characters Hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea.

As a result of former French colonization , Vietnamese switched to a a Latin-based alphabet. Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbors. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects are spoken.

Proportions of first-language speakers [4]. Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely on the basis of the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: [47] [48]. The classification of Li Rong , which is used in the Language Atlas of China , distinguishes three further groups: [40] [49]. Some varieties remain unclassified, including Danzhou dialect spoken in Danzhou , on Hainan Island , Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong.

Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect , the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. In mainland China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature.

For example, in addition to Standard Chinese, a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese ; and, if he or she grew up elsewhere, then he or she is also likely to be fluent in the particular dialect of that local area. A native of Guangzhou may speak both Cantonese and Standard Chinese. Mutual intelligibility is considered by some linguists to be the main criterion for determining whether varieties are separate languages or dialects of a single language, [55] although others do not regard it as decisive, [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] particularly when cultural factors interfere as they do with Chinese.

On the other hand, he also objects to considering them as separate languages, as it incorrectly implies a set of disruptive "religious, economic, political, and other differences" between speakers that exist, for example, between French Catholics and English Protestants in Canada, but not between speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin in China, owing to China's near-uninterrupted history of centralized government. Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed.

These include vernacular , [64] lect , [65] regionalect , [53] topolect , [66] and variety. Most Chinese people consider the spoken varieties as one single language because speakers share a common culture and history, as well as a shared national identity and a common written form.

There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese.

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The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.

All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese along with the neutral tone to the syllable ma.

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The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words:. Standard Cantonese , in contrast, has six tones in open syllables and three tones in syllables ending with stops: [70]. Chinese is often described as a "monosyllabic" language. However, this is only partially correct. In the modern varieties, it is usually the case that a morpheme unit of meaning is a single syllable; In contrast, English has plenty of multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as "seven", "elephant", "para-" and "-able".

Some of the conservative southern varieties of modern Chinese have largely monosyllabic words, especially among the more basic vocabulary. In modern Mandarin, however, most nouns , adjectives and verbs are largely disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonological attrition. Sound change over time has steadily reduced the number of possible syllables. In modern Mandarin, there are now only about 1, possible syllables, including tonal distinctions, compared with about 5, in Vietnamese still largely monosyllabic and over 8, in English.

This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. Baxter's transcription they were dzyip , zyit , syik , dzyek , dzyi and zyik respectively. They are still pronounced differently in today's Cantonese ; in Jyutping they are sap9 , sat9 , sik7 , sek9 , si4 , sik9. In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is; Yuen Ren Chao 's modern poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi.

As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing with a longer, less-ambiguous compound. In each case, the homophone was disambiguated by adding another morpheme, typically either a synonym or a generic word of some sort for example, "head", "thing" , the purpose of which is simply to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable should be selected. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic.

Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character compounds.

Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages , in that they depend on syntax word order and sentence structure rather than morphology —i. They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. Chinese has a subject—verb—object word order , and like many other languages of East Asia , makes frequent use of the topic—comment construction to form sentences.

Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words , another trait shared with neighboring languages like Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction , pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping. The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 20, characters, of which only roughly 10, are now commonly in use. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters.

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