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All these policy reforms require approval from senior corporate management. Moreover, his corporate partners are largely Western multinationals with an existing global strategy on LGBT related issues, and for indigenous companies, such companies are less frequent. In these situation, Bielinski suggests employees lead employers to "learn more LGBT as a business issue", but also warns "it's difficult to influence if you don't have a job, or a livelihood, or some security.

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Editor's Picks. In Hu advised the CCP not to focus solely on economic growth and instead integrate social and environmental factors into decision making. Hu also took a number of high profile trips to the poorer areas of China as well as made the minutes of the Politburo Standing Committee meetings public. On 4 December , China adopted its fourth constitution since , succeeding those of , , and In theory, the highest organ of state power is the National People's Congress NPC , in which legislative power is vested. The constitution stipulates, however, that the congress is to function under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party , headed by the general secretary.

The NPC meets annually for about two weeks to review major new policy directions, to adopt new laws, and to approve the national budget submitted to it by the state council. Each congress consists of more than 3, deputies elected indirectly for a term of five years. The NPC elects a standing committee as its permanent working organ between sessions.

The state council, the executive organ of the NPC, consists of a premier the head of government , five vicepremiers, ministers, and heads of other major government agencies. The state council issues administrative regulations and both formulates and executes economic policy and the state budget. The constitution restored the largely ceremonial post of state chairman, or president, a position abolished by Mao Zedong in The eighth National People's Congress in March elected Jiang Zemin as president and reelected Li Peng, first elected in , to a second five-year term as premier.

Since the s, the NPC has slowly increased its function as a locus for discussion of issues instead of merely being a rubber stamp. The debate on the Yangtze River Chang Jiang dam project is an example of this. The political leadership settled into one of shared leadership. At the 16th party congress held in November , Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji resigned their posts in the Politburo standing committee, and the three gave up their positions as president and general secretary, chairman of the NPC standing committee, and premier, respectively, at the 10th NPC held in March Hu Jintao was named president he had already been named general secretary of the Communist Party and Wen Jiabao was named premier.

Democratic elections are held at the village level, but are forbidden above that level. Corruption, embezzlement, and bribery are all aspects of contemporary Chinese political life.

The government owns all forms of media, including television, radio stations, and most newspapers. However, access to the Internet is widespread, especially in large cities and Western news outlets can be reached. Eight other minor parties have existed since as members of a United Front, but their existence has been purely nominal. The party, with 55 million members estimate , plays a decisive role in formulating broad and detailed government policies and supervising their implementation at all levels of administration.

Party supervision is maintained not only through placement of CCP members in key government posts, but also through specialized organs of the central committee of the CCP, which focus their attention on given subjects e. The CCP also forms branches within individual government units, as well as in factories, communes, schools, shops, neighborhoods, and military units.

Theoretically, the highest organ of party power is the National Party Congress, which usually meets once every five years. At each party congress a central committee is elected to oversee party affairs between sessions.

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The central committee members — full members and alternate members meets annually in a plenary session to elect a political bureau, or Politburo with 24 members as of , and its standing committee, the party's most powerful organ 9 members in Directing day-to-day party affairs at the highest level is the secretariat, headed by Hu Jintao as general secretary since November In , the post of party chairman, formerly the most powerful in the nation, was abolished; the title had been held by Mao Zedong until his death in , by Hua Guofeng from until his ouster in , and by Hu Yaobang thereafter.

Deng Xiaoping, China's acknowledged political leader since , retired from the central committee in , retired as chairperson of the party's central military commission in , and retired as chairperson of the state's central military commission, his last formal position, in A new CCP charter adopted at the 12th Communist Party congress in September forbids "all forms of personality cult" and, in an implicit criticism of Mao, decrees that "no leaders are allowed to practice arbitrary individual rule or place themselves above the party organization.

The 13th party congress, convened in October , affirmed Deng's reform policies and the drive for a younger leadership. In the wake of the June Fourth massacre in , Deng Xiaoping declared that Jiang Zemin, former mayor of Shanghai, should be the "core" of collective leadership after Deng's death. The Politburo announced prohibitions, largely ineffectual, against some forms of party privileges and nepotism, the corruption that had sparked the protests.

The 14th party congress in October removed Yang Shangkun, state president — 93 , from the Politburo, weakening the power of his clique in the military. In , the National People's Congress reelected Jiang Zemin, already party general secretary, as chairperson of the central military commission and elected him as state president. This was the first time since the late s that top, formal positions in the party, government, and military were concentrated in one leader's hands. After the 15th Communist Party congress, a highly publicized anticorruption drive resulted in the execution of several prominent cases.

In addition, Jiang began to remove the Communist Party from state-owned enterprises through an aggressive privatization strategy. In , Jiang introduced a theory revamping the image of the Communist Party. Called the "three represents," it was written into the party constitution at the 16th party congress in November Seen as a reorientation of the party away from its sole mission to serve the proletariat, the theory of the "three represents" emphasizes the importance of the middle class, stating that the party will represent not only workers and peasants, but the "advanced productive forces, advanced culture, and the broad masses of the people.

Seen as moderate and cautious, he was expected to proceed with Jiang's slow but steady policy of economic liberalization, and perhaps to introduce some administrative and political reform. Soon into his tenure, the SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome crisis broke out and Hu was criticized for not taking action quickly enough.

Hu also chose to move China away from a policy of favoring rapid economic growth and toward a more balanced view of growth, most notably by establishing a "green" GDP , taking into consideration the degradation of both natural resources and the environment. The People's Republic of China PRC consists of 22 provinces sheng — the PRC claims Taiwan as its 23rd province , five autonomous regions zizhiqu , and four centrally administered municipalities zhixiashi.

Provinces and autonomous regions, in turn, are divided into "special districts," counties xian , and cities shi under provincial jurisdiction, as well as into autonomous minor regions zhou and autonomous counties zizhixian , where non-Han Chinese minority groups reside. Counties, autonomous counties, and autonomous zhou are divided into townships xiang , autonomous townships for small minority groups , towns, and rural communes. From — 82, local administrative authority formerly held by the xiang was transferred to the communes and their local people's councils.

In , Hainan Island, formerly part of Guangdong, was made China's newest province. The constitution returned local administrative control to the xiangs as the communes began to be disbanded. Local revolutionary committees, which replaced the local people's councils during the Cultural Revolution and under the constitution, were abolished in The restored local people's councils have the power to formulate local laws and regulations.

The local people's governments are administrative organs of the state and report to the State Council. In the s an emphasis was placed on recruiting and promoting younger and better-educated officials in local party and government posts. Many provinces along the coastal regions have adopted more decentralized forms of administration while interior provinces remain highly beholden to the central party. Local elections involving multiple candidates have taken place, especially in the more urbanized coastal areas. Elections began on a trial basis in , and in over , villages, peasants were scheduled to go to the polls every three years to elect local committees.

However, after , Mao Zedong's government consistently circumvented the system in its campaign to purge the country of rightist elements and "counter-revolutionaries. Efforts to reestablish a credible legal system resumed in when there were no lawyers in China , as party moderates came to power. These efforts were accelerated in the early s as China sought to provide the legal protection required by foreign investors. The highest judicial organ is the Supreme People's Court, which, with the Supreme People's Procuratorates, supervises the administration of justice in the basic people's courts and people's tribunals courts of first instance , intermediate people's courts, and higher people's courts.

The judiciary is independent but subject to the Communist Party's policy guidance. The legal profession was still in an incipient stage of development in the mids. Over 25 law departments at universities and four special schools for training legal officials were in operation in , when China had 26, lawyers. By , there were , lawyers with plans to increase this number to , by A major anticrime campaign during the autumn of resulted in public executions at the rate of at least a month; capital punishment may be meted out for 65 offenses, including embezzlement and theft.

Under the Chinese criminal codes, as revised in , local committees may sentence "hoodlums" to terms in labor camps of up to four years, in proceedings that grant the suspect no apparent opportunity for defense or appeal. Government records for indicated that nearly , persons were assigned to such camps during the s. In , there were , people reported to be incarcerated in these camps. China does not permit international observation of prisons or labor camps.

Since , sentences to labor camps may be judicially challenged under the Administrative Procedures Law. In practice the review of such a sentence is rarely sought. Due process rights are afforded in the constitution, but they have limited practical import. The Criminal Procedural Law requires public trials, with an exception for cases involving state secrets, juveniles, or personal privacy. The Criminal Code contained 26 crimes punishable by death.

A law raised this number to 65, including financial crimes such as passing fake negotiable notes and letters of credit, and illegal "pooling" of funds.

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Appeal is possible but with little chance of success. However in , the National Peoples' Congress passed new legislation to reform criminal procedure and the legal profession. The new legislation recognized for the first time that lawyers represent their clients, not the state. Under the new system lawyers may establish private law firms. Defendants may also ask near relatives or guardians to provide additional defense.

Amendments to the criminal procedure became effective in January The amendments state that suspects may retain a lawyer after being first interrogated by an investigative organ. Attorneys may conduct limited investigation, call defense witnesses, and argue their client's cases in open court. According to the amendments, defendants will enjoy a presumption of innocence.

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Beginning in , the government began a comprehensive "internal shakeup" of the judiciary, resulting in the punishment or dismissal of over 4, judicial branch employees. In January , the former head of the Anticorruption Bureau of the Supreme People's Procuratorate was dismissed for corruption. In opening its market up to sectors involving finance, insurance, telecommunications, commerce, transportation, construction, tourism, and other services, China will require its judicial system to perform in accordance with international standards.

As of , China's lawyers were adhering to a new policy to wear black suits in court, in an attempt to promote professionalism and as a step toward integration with international practices. Independent trade unions are illegal.

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