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A survey of 14 estimates of Paraguay's pre-war population varied between , and 1,, Because of the local situation, all casualty figures are a very rough estimate; accurate casualty numbers may never be determined. After the war, an census recorded , inhabitants, of which , were women, 28, were men, and 86, were children with no indication of sex or upper age limit. In the estimation of Vera Blinn Reber, however, "The evidence demonstrates that the Paraguayan population casualties due to the war have been enormously exaggerated".

To establish the population before the war, Whigham used an census and calculated, based on a population growth rate of 1.

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Based on a census carried out after the war ended, in —, Whigham concluded that ,—, Paraguayan people had survived, of whom only 28, were adult males. Of approximately , Brazilians who fought in the Paraguayan War, the best estimates are that around 50, men died.

Paraguayan War

The high rates of mortality were not all due to combat. As was common before antibiotics were developed, disease caused more deaths than war wounds. Bad food and poor sanitation contributed to disease among troops and civilians. Among the Brazilians, two-thirds of the dead died either in a hospital or on the march. At the beginning of the conflict, most Brazilian soldiers came from the north and northeast regions; the change from a hot to a colder climate, combined with restricted food rations, may have weakened their resistance.

Entire battalions of Brazilians were recorded as dying after drinking water from rivers. Therefore, some historians believe cholera , transmitted in the water, was a leading cause of death during the war. Paraguayan women played a significant role in the Paraguayan War. During the period just before the war began many Paraguayan women were the heads of their households, meaning they held a position of power and authority.

They received such positions by being widows, having children out of wedlock, or their husbands having worked as peons. When the war began women started to venture out of the home becoming nurses, working with government officials, and establishing themselves into the public sphere. When The New York Times reported on the war in , it considered Paraguayan women equal to their male counterparts. Paraguayan women's support of the war effort can be divided into two stages. During this period of the war, peasant women became the main producers of agricultural goods.

At this stage, the number of women becoming victims of war was increasing.

Women helped sustain Paraguayan society during a very unstable period. Though Paraguay did lose the war, the outcome might have been even more disastrous without women performing specific tasks. Women worked as farmers, soldiers, nurses, and government officials. They became a symbol for national unification, and at the end of the war, the traditions women maintained were part of what held the nation together.

A piece in The Economist argued that with the death of most of Paraguay's male polulation, the Paraguayan War distorted the sex ratio to women greatly outnumbering men and has impacted the sexual culture of Paraguay to this day. Because of the depopulation, men were encouraged after the war to have multiple children with multiple women, even supposedly celibate Catholic priests.

A columnist linked this cultural idea to the paternity scandal of former president Fernando Lugo , who fathered multiple children while he was a supposedly celibate priest. Prior to the war, indigenous people occupied very little space in the minds of the Paraguayan elite. Paraguayan president Carlos Antonio Lopez even modified the country's constitution in to remove any mention of Paraguay's Hispano-Guarani character. However, during the war, the indigenous people of Paraguay came to occupy an even larger role in public life, especially after the Battle of Estero Bellaco.

For this battle, Paraguay put its "best" men, who happened to be of Spanish descent, front and center. Paraguay overwhelmingly lost this battle, as well as "the males of all the best families in the country.

The war also bonded the indigenous people of Paraguay to the project of Paraguayan nation-building. In the immediate lead up to the war, they were confronted with a barrage of nationalist rhetoric in Spanish and Guarani and subject to loyalty oaths and exercises. He knew he would have to bridge this divide or risk it being exploited by the 'Triple Alliance. As a result of this, any attack on Paraguay was considered to be an attack on the Paraguayan nation, despite rhetoric from Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina saying otherwise.

This sentiment increased after the terms of the Treaty of the Triple Alliance were leaked, especially the clause stating that Paraguay would pay for all the damages incurred by the conflict. Both free and enslaved Afro-Brazilian men came to compose the majority of Brazilian forces in the Paraguayan War.

The Brazilian monarchy originally allowed creole-only units or 'Zuavos' in the military at the outset of the war, following the insistence of Brazilian creole Ouirino Antonio do Espirito Santo. By , black-only units were no longer permitted, with the entire military being integrated just as it had been prior to the War of the Triple Alliance. While this had the effect of reducing black identification with the state, the overarching rationale behind this was the "country needed recruits for its existing battalions, not more independently organized companies.

On the contrary, "impoverished gente de cor constituted the greater part of the soldiers in every Brazilian infantry battalion.

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Afro-Brazilian women played a key role in sustaining the Brazilian military as "vivandeiras. However, the imperial Brazilian government actively worked to minimize the importance of their work by labeling it "service to their male kin, not the nation" and considering it to be "natural" and "habitual. Poor Afro-Brazilian women also served as nurses, with most of them being trained upon entry into the military to assist male doctors in the camps. These women were "seeking gainful employment to compensate for the loss of income from male kin who had been drafted into the war.

Paraguay permanently lost its claim to territories which, before the war, were in dispute between it and Brazil or Argentina, respectively. Those disputes had been longstanding and complex. In colonial times certain lands lying to the north of the River Apa were in dispute between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire. After independence they continued to be disputed between the Empire of Brazil and the Republic of Paraguay.

Brazil also retained the northern regions it had claimed before the war. After independence, the Republic of Paraguay and the Argentine Confederation succeeded to these disputes. After the war the disputed lands definitively became the Argentine national territory of Misiones, now Misiones Province. The Gran Chaco is an area lying to the west of the River Paraguay.

Before the war it was "an enormous plain covered by swamps , chaparral and thorn forests With some exceptions, these were paper claims, because none of those countries was in effective occupation of the area: essentially they were claims to be the true successor to the Spanish Empire, in an area never effectively occupied by Spain itself, and wherein Spain had no particular motive for prescribing internal boundaries. The exceptions were as follows. As already stated, the Argentine Congress refused to ratify this treaty; and it was protested by the government of Bolivia as inimical to its own claims.

After , and more especially after the State of Buenos Aires rejoined the Argentine Confederation, Argentina's claim to the Chaco hardened; it claimed territory all the way up to the border with Bolivia. However, the Brazilian government disliked what its representative in Buenos Aires had negotiated in this respect, and resolved that Argentina should not receive "a handsbreadth of territory" above the Pilcomayo River. It set out to frustrate Argentina's further claim, with eventual success.

This treaty granted Argentina roughly one third of the area it had originally desired. Argentina became the strongest of the River Plate countries. Hayes , was asked to arbitrate. His award was in Paraguay's favour. The Paraguayan Presidente Hayes Department is named in his honour.

Paraguayan War

There was destruction of the existing state, loss of neighboring territories and ruin of the Paraguayan economy, so that even decades later, it could not develop in the same way as its neighbors. The War helped the Brazilian Empire to reach its peak of political and military influence, becoming the Great Power of South America, and also helped to bring about the end of slavery in Brazil , moving the military into a key role in the public sphere. The war debt, alongside a long-lasting social crisis after the conflict, [] [] are regarded as crucial factors for the fall of the Empire and proclamation of the First Brazilian Republic.

During the war the Brazilian army took complete control of Paraguayan territory and occupied the country for six years after In part this was to prevent the annexation of even more territory by Argentina, which had wanted to seize the entire Chaco region. During this time, Brazil and Argentina had strong tensions, with the threat of armed conflict between them.

In Brazil the war exposed the fragility of the Empire, and dissociated the monarchy from the army. The Brazilian army became a new and influential force in national life. It developed as a strong national institution that, with the war, gained tradition and internal cohesion.

The Army would take a significant role in the later development of the history of the country. The economic depression and the strengthening of the army later played a large role in the deposition of the emperor Pedro II and the republican proclamation in Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca became the first Brazilian president. As in other countries, "wartime recruitment of slaves in the Americas rarely implied a complete rejection of slavery and usually acknowledged masters' rights over their property. It also impressed slaves from owners when needing manpower, and paid compensation.

In areas near the conflict, slaves took advantage of wartime conditions to escape, and some fugitive slaves volunteered for the army. Together these effects undermined the institution of slavery.

But, the military also upheld owners' property rights, as it returned at least 36 fugitive slaves to owners who could satisfy its requirement for legal proof. Significantly, slavery was not officially ended until the s. Due to the war, Brazil ran a deficit between and , which was finally paid off. At the time foreign loans were not significant sources of funds. Following the war, Argentina faced many federalist revolts against the national government. Economically it benefited from having sold supplies to the Brazilian army, but the war overall decreased the national treasure.

The national action contributed to the consolidation of the centralized government after revolutions were put down, and the growth in influence of Army leadership. It has been argued the conflict played a key role in the consolidation of Argentina as a nation-state. Uruguay suffered lesser effects, although nearly 5, soldiers were killed. As a consequence of the war, the Colorados gained political control of Uruguay and despite rebellions retained it until Interpretation of the causes of the war and its aftermath has been a controversial topic in the histories of participating countries, especially in Paraguay.

There it has been considered either a fearless struggle for the rights of a smaller nation against the aggression of more powerful neighbors, or a foolish attempt to fight an unwinnable war that almost destroyed the nation. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia , considered the official encyclopedic source of the USSR , presented a short view about the Paraguayan War, largely favourable to the Paraguayans, claiming that the conflict was a "war of imperialist aggression" long planned by slave-owners and the bourgeois capitalists, waged by Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay under instigation of Great Britain , France and United States.

People of Argentina have their own internal disputes over interpretations of the war: many Argentinians think the conflict was Mitre's war of conquest, and not a response to aggression.

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