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Labor unrest continued into as thousands of workers in several impoverished inland provinces rioted when promises of back pay went unfulfilled. A March labor protest involving 20, workers in Nanchong was the largest since the Communist revolution. China's uneven economic development also led to the growth of a migrant worker class. By , it was estimated that some — million peasants left their homes in northern and western provinces in search of menial work along the coast.

The unemployment in urban areas was 9. Parallel to but separate from the student and labor movements were ongoing demonstrations by ethnic minorities; there are 56 officially recognized minority groups in China. The most visible were those of the Tibetans Buddhists , due to their international connections, but there have also been protests by other minorities, such as the Uyghurs Muslims in Xinjiang province.

Violent Tibetan demonstrations in the fall of and spring of were forcibly suppressed, and from March to April , martial law was imposed in Lhasa , Tibet. A Uyghur uprising in Xinjiang was met with force by the Chinese military in February , leaving an estimated ethnic Uyghur and 25 Chinese dead. But the situation in Tibet posed the most difficulty for Beijing. China's efforts to control Tibet and dilute its culture led in to the indefinite detention of the six-year-old boy chosen by the exiled Dalai Lama as his reincarnation, or Panchen Lama. Beijing selected another six-year-old and forced Tibetan leaders to accept him.

According to the CCP the Panchen Lama and his family are living in 'protective custody,' however, no international organization has been able to visit the family to verify their whereabouts since he was taken in Jiang Zemin became the General Secretary of the party in addition to his title of president. Li Peng was appointed prime minister , and Zhu Rongji, deputy prime minister.

During this Congress, political power was consolidated in the triumvirate, with Jiang Zemin officially taking the deceased Deng Xiaoping's position. As the government prepared for the 50th anniversary of the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, it witnessed the return of Hong Kong 1 July and Macau 20 December Also in , Chinese nationalism increased with the US bombings of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade , Yugoslavia in May as an outpouring of government-sanctioned anti-American demonstrations took place in Beijing.

Despite rising nationalism, the political leadership felt threatened by a small but rapidly growing religious sect, the Falun Gong. On 22 July , Chinese authorities banned the sect and arrested its leaders despite international human rights watch groups' criticism.

The country celebrated its 50th anniversary on 1 October with a ,person military parade showcasing its new technological achievements in armaments. In February and March , China testfired missiles near Taiwan's two main ports, which caused the United States to send two aircraft carrier groups to the Taiwan Strait. The missile firings and accompanying military exercises were considered to be responses to Taiwan's presidential elections of March , which President Lee Tenghui, whom China accused of supporting Taiwanese independence, won.

In the runup to Taiwanese presidential elections in March , Chen Shuibian of the Democratic Progressive Party, the eventual winner, issued proindependence campaign speeches advocating "one country on each side," contradicting China's "one-country, two systems" policy. In March , Zhu Rongji, the deputy prime minister, warned Taiwan and the United States that Taiwanese independence could lead to armed conflict. A Chinese newspaper also quoted a government white paper stating that war with the United States is inevitable in the future and that if the United States intervened on behalf of Taiwan, the Chinese may use nuclear weapons.

Meanwhile, China began construction of military bases on the mainland across the Taiwan Strait.

In , China had fewer than 50 shortrange missiles within striking distance of Taiwan. In April , it was estimated that China's military forces had more than missiles in the region and by the number had escalated to The Chinese fighter pilot was lost. The EP-3 conducted an emergency landing on Hainan Island, and the member crew was detained there for 11 days in a standoff between the two countries.

The United States and China blamed each other's aircraft for the crash. The EP-3 was later disassembled for transport back to the United States. It has backed the Americanled war on terrorism, and cited its own problems with what it considers to be terrorist activities led by ethnic Uyghurs fighting for an independent homeland in the northwest Xinjiang province.

China has detained thousands of Uyghurs since 11 September China voted in favor of UN Security Council Resolution on 8 November , which required Iraq to immediately disarm itself of weapons of mass destruction chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons , to allow UN and International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA arms inspectors into the country, and to comply with previous UN resolutions regarding Iraq. On 11 December , China formally became a member of the World Trade Organization , representing international recognition of China's growing economic power.

Several nongovernmental organizations and individuals worldwide protested China's accession to the body, due to its record on human rights violations.

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Another formidable problem for China, in regards to acceptance of WTO regulations, is the lack of adherence to intellectual property rights which involves industries as different as films to computer software. Most concerning is the availability of counterfeit medicine; thousands of Chinese are reported to have died from the ill effects of fake medicine. WTO regulations forbid counterfeiting although this has not yet affected China's membership in the organization.

The Spratlys are claimed by China, Taiwan, Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, and are home to some of the world's busiest shipping lanes; they are also believed to be rich in oil and natural gas. Signatories to the accord agreed to cease further occupation of the islands, to help anyone in distress in the area, to exchange views with one another on defense issues, and to give advance warning of military exercises. In addition to Hu, the other eight members of the 9-member Politburo Standing Committee were new appointees. In Hu advised the CCP not to focus solely on economic growth and instead integrate social and environmental factors into decision making.

Hu also took a number of high profile trips to the poorer areas of China as well as made the minutes of the Politburo Standing Committee meetings public.

On 4 December , China adopted its fourth constitution since , succeeding those of , , and In theory, the highest organ of state power is the National People's Congress NPC , in which legislative power is vested. The constitution stipulates, however, that the congress is to function under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party , headed by the general secretary.

The NPC meets annually for about two weeks to review major new policy directions, to adopt new laws, and to approve the national budget submitted to it by the state council. Each congress consists of more than 3, deputies elected indirectly for a term of five years. The NPC elects a standing committee as its permanent working organ between sessions.

The state council, the executive organ of the NPC, consists of a premier the head of government , five vicepremiers, ministers, and heads of other major government agencies. The state council issues administrative regulations and both formulates and executes economic policy and the state budget. The constitution restored the largely ceremonial post of state chairman, or president, a position abolished by Mao Zedong in The eighth National People's Congress in March elected Jiang Zemin as president and reelected Li Peng, first elected in , to a second five-year term as premier.

Since the s, the NPC has slowly increased its function as a locus for discussion of issues instead of merely being a rubber stamp.

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The debate on the Yangtze River Chang Jiang dam project is an example of this. The political leadership settled into one of shared leadership. At the 16th party congress held in November , Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji resigned their posts in the Politburo standing committee, and the three gave up their positions as president and general secretary, chairman of the NPC standing committee, and premier, respectively, at the 10th NPC held in March Hu Jintao was named president he had already been named general secretary of the Communist Party and Wen Jiabao was named premier.

Democratic elections are held at the village level, but are forbidden above that level.

Corruption, embezzlement, and bribery are all aspects of contemporary Chinese political life. The government owns all forms of media, including television, radio stations, and most newspapers. However, access to the Internet is widespread, especially in large cities and Western news outlets can be reached. Eight other minor parties have existed since as members of a United Front, but their existence has been purely nominal. The party, with 55 million members estimate , plays a decisive role in formulating broad and detailed government policies and supervising their implementation at all levels of administration.

Party supervision is maintained not only through placement of CCP members in key government posts, but also through specialized organs of the central committee of the CCP, which focus their attention on given subjects e. The CCP also forms branches within individual government units, as well as in factories, communes, schools, shops, neighborhoods, and military units. Theoretically, the highest organ of party power is the National Party Congress, which usually meets once every five years.

At each party congress a central committee is elected to oversee party affairs between sessions. The central committee members — full members and alternate members meets annually in a plenary session to elect a political bureau, or Politburo with 24 members as of , and its standing committee, the party's most powerful organ 9 members in Directing day-to-day party affairs at the highest level is the secretariat, headed by Hu Jintao as general secretary since November In , the post of party chairman, formerly the most powerful in the nation, was abolished; the title had been held by Mao Zedong until his death in , by Hua Guofeng from until his ouster in , and by Hu Yaobang thereafter.

Deng Xiaoping, China's acknowledged political leader since , retired from the central committee in , retired as chairperson of the party's central military commission in , and retired as chairperson of the state's central military commission, his last formal position, in A new CCP charter adopted at the 12th Communist Party congress in September forbids "all forms of personality cult" and, in an implicit criticism of Mao, decrees that "no leaders are allowed to practice arbitrary individual rule or place themselves above the party organization. The 13th party congress, convened in October , affirmed Deng's reform policies and the drive for a younger leadership.

In the wake of the June Fourth massacre in , Deng Xiaoping declared that Jiang Zemin, former mayor of Shanghai, should be the "core" of collective leadership after Deng's death.

The Politburo announced prohibitions, largely ineffectual, against some forms of party privileges and nepotism, the corruption that had sparked the protests. The 14th party congress in October removed Yang Shangkun, state president — 93 , from the Politburo, weakening the power of his clique in the military.

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In , the National People's Congress reelected Jiang Zemin, already party general secretary, as chairperson of the central military commission and elected him as state president. This was the first time since the late s that top, formal positions in the party, government, and military were concentrated in one leader's hands. After the 15th Communist Party congress, a highly publicized anticorruption drive resulted in the execution of several prominent cases.

In addition, Jiang began to remove the Communist Party from state-owned enterprises through an aggressive privatization strategy. In , Jiang introduced a theory revamping the image of the Communist Party.

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Called the "three represents," it was written into the party constitution at the 16th party congress in November Seen as a reorientation of the party away from its sole mission to serve the proletariat, the theory of the "three represents" emphasizes the importance of the middle class, stating that the party will represent not only workers and peasants, but the "advanced productive forces, advanced culture, and the broad masses of the people. Seen as moderate and cautious, he was expected to proceed with Jiang's slow but steady policy of economic liberalization, and perhaps to introduce some administrative and political reform.

Soon into his tenure, the SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome crisis broke out and Hu was criticized for not taking action quickly enough. Hu also chose to move China away from a policy of favoring rapid economic growth and toward a more balanced view of growth, most notably by establishing a "green" GDP , taking into consideration the degradation of both natural resources and the environment.

The People's Republic of China PRC consists of 22 provinces sheng — the PRC claims Taiwan as its 23rd province , five autonomous regions zizhiqu , and four centrally administered municipalities zhixiashi. Provinces and autonomous regions, in turn, are divided into "special districts," counties xian , and cities shi under provincial jurisdiction, as well as into autonomous minor regions zhou and autonomous counties zizhixian , where non-Han Chinese minority groups reside.

Counties, autonomous counties, and autonomous zhou are divided into townships xiang , autonomous townships for small minority groups , towns, and rural communes. From — 82, local administrative authority formerly held by the xiang was transferred to the communes and their local people's councils. In , Hainan Island, formerly part of Guangdong, was made China's newest province.

The constitution returned local administrative control to the xiangs as the communes began to be disbanded. Local revolutionary committees, which replaced the local people's councils during the Cultural Revolution and under the constitution, were abolished in The restored local people's councils have the power to formulate local laws and regulations.

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